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自由与公正

契约、公平与社会正义──罗尔斯《正义论》(24)

最后,或许有人投诉罗尔斯的理论过于抽象或脱离历史时代,但这显然是一种误解。罗尔斯的理论无疑充满理想色彩,即使今日西方先进的福利社会,依然和他的正义原则有相当大的距离。但罗尔斯深信,他的理论是一个能够实践的乌托邦(realistic utopia),透过人类不断的努力,一个更加正义的社会总有可能实现。再者,他的正义论充满对现实世界的批判。他拒斥效益主义,指出不能以多数之名,牺牲个人权利;他反对右派自由主义,对现代放任资本主义造成的贫富不均作出强烈批判;他肯定多元主义的合理性,致力寻求人们可以合理接受的政治原则,从而使得持不同宗教及价值观的人可以在一起和平生活。更重要的是,透过严谨的哲学论证,罗尔斯向我们显示,启蒙运动及自由主义的传统,仍然有丰富的理论资源,帮助我们建立实质的道德原则,对历史及当下的社会作出批判,并指向一个更美好的未来。
  
  

罗尔斯的著作


    1950“A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge: Considered with Reference to Judgments on the Moral Worth of Character. ” Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1950. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts (1955), 15, pp.608-09.
    1951a“Outline of a Decision Procedure for Ethics,” Philosophical Review, 60, pp.177-97.
    1951b“Review of Axel H?gerstrom's Inquiries into the Nature of Law and Morals (C.D. Broad, tr.),” Mind, 64, pp.421-22.
    1951c“Review of Stephen Toulmin’s An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics,” Philosophical Review, 60, pp.572-80.
    1955“Two Concepts of Rules,” Philosophical Review, 64, pp.3-32.
    1958“Justice as Fairness,” Philosophical Review, 67, pp.164-94. (另一同名但较短版本可见Journal of Philosophy, 54 (1957), pp.653-662.)
    1959“Review of A. Vilhelm Lundstedt's Legal Thinking Revised,” Cornell Law Quarterly, 44, p.169.
    1961“Review of Raymond Klibansky, ed., Philosophy in Mid-Century: A Survey,” Philosophical Review, 70, pp.131-32.
    1963a“Constitutional Liberty and the Concept of Justice,” in Nomos, ed. Carl J. Friedrich and John W. Chapman, vol. VI, Justice (New York: Atherton Press), pp.98-125.
    1963b“The Sense of Justice,” Philosophical Review, 72, pp.281-305.
    1964“Legal Obligation and the Duty of Fair Play,” in Law and Philosophy: A Symposium, ed. Sidney Hook (New York: New York University Press), pp.3-18.
    1965“Review of Richard B. Brandt, ed., Social Justice,” Philosophical Review, 74, pp.406-09.
    1967“Distributive Justice,” in Philosophy, Politics and Society, Third Series, ed. Peter Laslett and W.G. Runciman (Oxford: Blackwell), pp.58-82.
    1968“Distributive Justice: Some Addenda,” Natural Law Forum, 13, pp.51-71
    1969“The Justification of Civil Disobedience,” in Civil Disobedience: Theory and Practice, ed. Hugo Bedau (New York: Pegasus Books), pp.240-55.
    1971aA Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press) (牛津大学出版社英国版于1972年出版)
    1971b“Justice as Reciprocity,” in John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism, with Critical Essays, ed. Samuel Gorowitz (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill), pp.242-68.
    1972“Reply to Lyons and Teitelman,” Journal of Philosophy, 69, pp.556-57.
    1974a“Some Reasons for the Maximin Criterion,” American Economic Review, 64, pp.141-46.
    1974b“Reply to Alexander and Musgrave,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 88, pp.633-55.
    1975a“A Kantian Conception of Equality,” Cambridge Review, 96, pp.94-99, and reprinted as “A Well-Ordered Society,” in Philosophy, Politics and Society, Fifth Series, ed. Peter Laslett and James Fishkin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979).
    1975b“Fairness to Goodness”, Philosophical Review, 84, pp.536-554.
    1975c“The Independence of Moral Theory,” Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association, 48, pp.5-22.
    1977“The Basic Structure as Subject,” American Philosophical Quarterly, 14, pp.159-65. 此文的修正版收在Values and Morals, ed. Alvin Goldman and Jaegwon Kim (Dordrecht, 1978), pp.47-71.(亦可见Political Liberalism, lecture VII)
    1980“Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory”, Journal of Philosophy, 77, pp.515-72.
    1982a“Social Unity and Primary Goods,” in Utilitarianism and Beyond, ed. Amartya Sen and Bernard Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp.159-86.
    1982b“The Basic Liberties and Their Priority,” The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, vol.3, ed. Sterling McMurrin (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press), pp.3-87. (亦可见Political Liberalism, lecture VIII).
    1985“Justice as Fairness: Political not Metaphysical,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, 14, pp.223-51.

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契约、公平与社会正义──罗尔斯《正义论》(25)

1987a“The Idea of an Overlapping Consensus,” Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 7, pp.1-25.
    1987b“Preface for the French Edition of A Theory of Justice,” trans. Catherine Audard ( Paris: Editions Du Seuil)
    1988“The Priority of Right and Ideas of the Good,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, 17, pp.251-76.
    1989“Themes in Kant’s Moral Philosophy,” in Kant’s Transcendental Deductions: The Three Critiques and the ‘Opus Postumum,’ ed. Eckart Forster (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press), pp.81-113.
    “The Domain of the Political and Overlapping Consensus,” New York University Law Review, 64, pp.233-255.
    1991“Roderick Firth: His life and Work,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 51, pp.109-18.
    1993aPolitical Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press).
    1993b“The Law of Peoples,” in On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures, ed. Stephen Shute and Susan Hurley (New York: Basic Books), pp.41-82.
    1995a“Fifty Years after Hiroshima,” Dissent, 42, pp.323-27.
    1995b“Reply to Habermas,” Journal of Philosophy, 92, pp.132-180.
    1996 Political Liberalism, Paperback Edition (New York: Columbia University Press)(加入平装版导言,并在最后收入“Reply to Habermas”一文) 。
    1997“The Idea of Public Reason Revisited,” University of Chicago Law Review, 64, 765-807.
    1998“Commonweal Interview with John Rawls,” written by Bernard Prusak, Commonweal, vol. CXXV, no.16, pp.12-17.
    1999a Collected Papers ed. Samuel Freeman (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press)(收入罗尔斯出版的大部分论文) 。
    1999b The Law of Peoples (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press) (1993年同名论文的改写版,并收入1996年的“The Idea of Public Reason Revisited”一文) 。
    1999c A Theory of Justice, Revised Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press) (加入修订版前言)
    2000 Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy, ed. Barbara Herman (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press).
    2001 Justice as Fairness: A Restatement ed. Erin Kelly (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press).

 

 注释:



  * 本文是为台湾桂冠出版社即将出版的《正义论》修订版写的导论,初稿蒙石元康教授、陈日东及尹德成先生指正,谨此致谢。作者亦多谢哥伦比亚大学教授Thomas Pogge提供罗尔斯生平的详尽数据。最后,作者特别感谢中文大学石元康教授,伦敦政经学院教授John Charvet及 Paul Kelly 对罗尔斯理论长期的深入讨论。当然,作者本人承担本文观点的所有责任。
  [1] 拉士略(Peter Laslett)在1956年便有“政治哲学已死”之叹。柏林(Isaiah Berlin)在1962年则唏嘘二十世纪没有产生任何重头的政治哲学著作。Peter Laslett, ed. Philosophy, Politics and Society, series I (Oxford: Blackwell, 1956), p.vii. Isaiah Berlin, “Does Political Philosophy Still Exist?” in his The Proper Study of Mankind: an Anthology of Essays (London: Pimlico, 1998), p.59. 有关二十世纪政哲的发展及《正义论》在其中的位置,可参考Philip Pettit, “Analytical Philosophy” in A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, ed. Robert Goodin & Philip Pettit (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), pp.7-38.
  [2] 右派自由主义(libertarianism)的代表人物诺锡克在1974年便曾预言,政治哲学由现时开始,要么在罗尔斯的理论框架内工作,要么便必须解释为何不如此做。过去三十年政哲的发展,正充分证明了这点。Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p.183. 另一位哲学家贝利则认为,《正义论》之后,我们是活在“后罗尔斯”(post-Rawlsian)的世界,它成了政治哲学的分水岭。Brian Barry, Political Argument: A Reissue (Hemel Hemstead: Wheatsheaf, 1990), p.ixix.
  [3] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, Revised Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p.xi. 本文以后所有括号中的页数,皆指英文修订版的页码。
  [4] 有关罗尔斯生平最详尽的报导,可参考他的学生博格(Thomas Pogge)的德文著作John Rawls (Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck, 1994)第一章。博格寄了一份英文版给笔者参考,题目为“A Brief Sketch of Rawls’s Life”。本文对罗尔斯生平的描述,大部分源于此文。亦可参考拙著〈当代哲学祭酒罗尔斯〉,《当代》第145期(1999),p.46-63。
  [5] John Rawls, “50 Years After Hiroshima”, Dissent, 42, (1995), pp.323-327。
  [6] John Rawls, “A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge: Considered with Reference to Judgments on the Moral Worth of Character,” Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1950. Abstract in Dissertation Abstract (1955), 15(4), pp.608-609.
  [7] 他的学生包括Thomas Nagel, T.M.Scanlon, Allan Gibbard, Onora O’Neill, Christine Korsgaard, Sissila Bok, Joshua Cohen等。
  [8] 以上文章都已收在John Rawls, Collected Papers, ed. Samuel Freeman (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1999).
  [9] John Rawls, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
  [10] John Rawls, The Law of Peoples (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1999).
  [11] John Rawls, Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy, ed. Barbara Herman (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2000).
  [12] John Rawls, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2001).
  [13] 关于此点,可看Norman Daniels ed. “Introduction,” Reading Rawls (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1975), p.xxxv.
  [14] Jurgen Habermas, “Reconciliation through the Public Use of Reason: Remarks on John Rawls’s Political Liberalism,” The Journal of Philosophy, vol.92, (1995), p.109.
  [15] 在正义问题的讨论中,除了分配正义外,另一范畴是惩罚正义(retributive justice)。罗尔斯书中只集中讨论前者。因为他假设证成的原则,将会在一个理想的良序社会中被严格服从(strict compliance) (p.8) 。
  [16] 不少人以为罗尔斯在提倡一自利主义者间的互利式正义观(justice as mutual advantage)。我下面的讨论将显示,他的公平式正义(justice as fairness)预设的动机其实是正义感和公平精神。既然互利的前提是一个公平的底线,则后者自然更为基本及优先。贝利便指出,罗尔斯假定的正义环境和他的正义原则并不一致。Brian Barry, Theories of Justice (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1989), chap.4-6.

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契约、公平与社会正义──罗尔斯《正义论》(26)

 [17] 这点引起很多的争论。罗尔斯在书中对此并没特别解释,后来则称纯是为方便讨论而作的抽象假定。见Political Liberalism, p.12。米勒对分配正义为何应局限在民族国家之内,提出了几点解释,包括文化认同及团结、对社会价值的共同理解以及国家作为一最有效的分配机构等。David Miller, Principles of Social Justice (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press,1999), pp.18-9。
  [18] 唯一例外是第58节,该处谈到国际法(law of nations)的问题。罗尔斯认为,只有待一个自足社会的正义原则被证成后,再考虑将其延伸到国际层面。直到最近,他才集中讨论这方面的问题。见John Rawls, The Law of Peoples.
  [19] 有关背景正义的重要性,书中并未提及,但其后在“The Basic Structure as Subject”一文中,罗尔斯却特别强调这一点。此文见Political Liberalism, Chap.7, pp.257-288. 
  [20] 所谓价值观念,即是我们一般所称的理性的人生目标或人生计划,包含特定的终极目标(final end),并以此将不同的欲望有系统地排定次序。例如一个人所持的宗教、道德以及世界观等。“价值观念”和“正义观念”是一对截然不同的概念,读者切莫将两者混淆。又,一般的译法,是将“a conception of the good”译为“善的观念”,这并不恰当,因为“善”在中文里含有道德上好的意思,但在英文中却没有此意含。例如哈柏玛斯便将它和“worldview”(世界观)互换指涉同一意思。我认为将其译为“价值观念”或“价值观”更为贴切易明。
  [21] 见“The Basic Structure as Subject,”pp.268-269。效益主义便面对这种困难,因为它的目标是极大化社会整体效益,但却极难有一套可行的程序进行准确计算,所以是一种不完美的程序正义的形态。
  [22] 引入基本物品的概念,也和他的假然契约论及无知之幕的设计有关。罗尔斯称对基本物品的说明,属于“单薄的价值理论”(the thin theory of the good)。详细讨论可见书中第七章。
  [23] 初版中“权力”(power)也包括在内,修订版则已将其删去。
  [24] 见修订版前言,p.xiii。修订版虽然作了部分修改,但一个更完整的说明,则须参考他后来的“Social Unity and Primary Goods”in Collected Papers, pp.359-87。下面的讨论以此文章为本。
  [25] 罗尔斯后来称这也是必要条件。见“The Basic Liberties and Their Priority”in Political Liberalism, chap.8, p.302. 这里亦得留意,罗尔斯强调的是能力或潜力,而不是其实现(realization)。各人实现这两种能力程度的差异,并不影响彼此平等的地位及作为权利的拥有者。对于由于先天或后天意外,而使得部分人丧失这两种能力的情形,罗尔斯认为只是特殊情况,可透过社会保障及医疗服务等作出补偿。
  [26] 最高序意味着在各种关怀中,它们是最为基本及规约性的(regulative),从而具有价值上的优先性。罗尔斯后来将“highest-order interest”改称为“higher-order interest”,但意思并没有改变。见Political Liberalism, p.74.有人将“interest”译为“利益”,显然不妥。我曾考虑过译为“兴趣”,但亦不太合适。几经斟酌,最后译为“关怀”,希望能贴近罗尔斯的原意。余英时曾将哈柏玛斯所谈三种对知识的“interesse”(德文)译为“内在要求”,因为哈氏是沿用康德的说法。罗尔斯是否有类似想法,则不得而知。余文见他的《中国思想传统的现代诠释》(台北:联经出版社,1987),p.110。
  [27] John Rawls, “Social Unity and Primary Goods,” p.367.
  [28] 有关效益主义的讨论,可参考David Lyons, Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965); J.J.C.Smart & Bernard Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973).
  [29] 储蓄原则和代际正义(intergenerational justice)有关,牵涉该留多少资源给后代的问题。此文将不作特别讨论。
  [30] 罗尔斯并没为义务论下一个独立的定义,只称它是非目的论式的(p.26)。
  [31] 此处自利或互不关心并没有中文中不道德的的含意,而表示立约者只全心全意关心及促进自己的利益。而理性则是指工具理性或经济理性,即一个采取最有效方式达到既定目的的选择,便属理性的选择。
  [32] 《正义论》初版对这两点并没有十分明确的表述,这里的说明是根据他后来的诠释。但我认为这和书中整个理论完全一致。
  [33] 有关至善主义的讨论,见书中第50节。罗尔斯后来对此论点有更清晰的说明。见“Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory,”pp.328-29。亦可见Political Liberalism, pp.24-25, note 27。
  [34] 原初立场也反映了对正义观念的形式限制,它们包括一般性(general)、普遍性(universal)、公共性(publicity)、次序性(ordering)及终极性(finality)。详细讨论见书中第23节。
  [35] 这是罗尔斯两条正义原则的第一种表述(p.53)。又,立约者在原初立场中被假设为不会互相妒忌,因为妒忌对双方都没好处。
  [36] 这个论证和初版的表述有所不同。事实上,罗尔斯对这个论证所在的第17节作了相当程度的改写。
  [37] 这是哈特在1973年提出的质疑。H. L. A. Hart, “ Rawls on Liberty and its Priority,” in Reading Rawls, pp.249-52.
  [38] John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, first edition, p.542.
  [39] 罗尔斯对此点的说明,见“The Basic Liberties and Their Priority,”in Political Liberalism, p.371, note 84。
  [40] 详细讨论见“The Basic Liberties and Their Priority”一文。
  [41] 对不同契约论性质的分类,可参考Chandran Kukathas & Philip Pettit, Rawls: A Theory of Justice and its Critics, chap.2.
  [42] 这些判断只是暂时的定点,也有可能出现不规则及不可靠的情况。所以,只要正义原则能给出充分理据,它们同样可以被修改。
  [43] 霍布斯(1588-1679)的思想,见Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
  [44] 这段说话是修订版所加。关于立约者动机的设定,罗尔斯在书中给出好几个不同的理由,包括反映主观的正义环境、配合理性选择理论、最弱及能被广泛接受的前提以至反映康德式的自律精神等。读者切莫只看其中一点,而忽略其它方面。但对于此问题依然有很多争论。石元康便认为,契约论中立约之前的动机必须与立约之后保持一致,否则契约便失去意义。见石元康,《洛尔斯》(台北:东大图书公司,1989),第五章。
  [45] 两阶段说是罗尔斯后来的指称。在《正义论》中,他认为稳定性问题不会影响第一阶段的论证。后期却称除非正义原则被证明为稳定,否则便必须回到第一阶段作出修正。见Political Liberalism, pp.140-141。
  [46] 详细讨论见书中第29及76节。
  [47] 详细讨论见书中第70-73节。
  [48] 罗尔斯其后公开承认了这种错误。见“Justice as Fairness: Political not Metaphysical”in Collected Papers, p.401, note20.
  [49] 罗尔斯修订版作的修改,正正说明这点。而史简伦和贝利更尝试完全放弃无知之幕的设计,而得出类似的原则。T.M.Scanlon, “Contractualism and Utilitarianism,” in Utilitarianism and Beyond, ed. Amartya Sen & Bernard Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp.103-128; Brian Barry, Justice as Impartiality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
  [50] 沉岱尔甚至认为,这里根本谈不上同意,因为立约者并没有同意的基础可言。Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p.129.
  [51] 见T.M.Scanlon, “Contractualism and Utilitarianism,” p.127; Brian Barry, Theories of Justice, p.336.
  [52] Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, p.228.
  [53] 这个论点见Will Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp.73-76.
  [54] 同上,p.71.
  [55] 见Amartya Sen, “Equality of What” in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1980), Vol.1, pp.197-220.
  [56] Rawls, “Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory”, p.304.

文章来源:「豆瓣网」( 2008年6月30日)

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